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Psychology Research Institute Psychology Research Institute

Dr. D. (Dylan) Molenaar

Assistant Professor
Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences
Programme group Psychological Methods
Area of expertise: Measurement, test theory, Latent variable models, Item response theory, Structural equation modelling, Factor analysis
Photographer: Ivailo Partchev
Visiting address
  • Nieuwe Achtergracht 129
  • Room number: 0.35
Postal address
  • Postbus 15906
    1001 NK Amsterdam
Contact details
Social media
  • Profile

    Dylan Molenaar is an assistant professor at the University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands. His main research interests are psychometrics, measurement, latent variable models, and test theory. He has published on various topics related to psychometrics, including: measurement invariance, factor analysis, item response theory, and latent class modeling. This research has resulted in various international peer reviewed journal articles in psychometrics and statistics journals like ‘Psychometrika’, ‘Structural Equation Modeling’, ‘Multivariate Behavior Research’, and ‘British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology’. He is the recipient of the 2013 best dissertation award and the 2019 early career award by the Psychometric Society. He is associate editor of the journals “Psychometrika”, "Behavior Research Methods", and "Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics", and member of the editorial boards of the journals “Intelligence” and the “Psychological and Educational Measurement” section of the open access journal “Pysch”. Additionally, he is a board member of the Interuniversity Graduate School of Psychometrics and Sociometrics (IOPS; an institute for the advanced dissertation training in psychometrics and sociometrics; with an emphasis on coordination of high-quality research in this area), an ad-hoc reviewer for COTAN (the Dutch committee on tests and testing which reviews the quality of psychological tests that are available for use in the Netherlands and raises standards for the use of psychological tests), and he serves as a member in the board that advices Cito (the Dutch organization for educational testing) on the quality of tests (to be) used in the Dutch primary education system. 

    For an overview of my work, including papers and computer code, please see my website (you can find a link above).

    Research expertise

    • Measurement, test theory
    • Latent variable models
    • Item response theory
    • Structural equation modelling
    • Factor analysis
  • Research

    Research methods

    • Statistics
    • Psychometrics

    Awards

    2019                             

    • Early career award, Psychometric Society, 84th annual meeting of the Psychometrics Society, Santiago, Chili, July.

    2013

    • Best dissertation award, Psychometric Society 78th annual meeting of the Psychometrics Society, Arnhem, The Netherlands, July.

    Grants

    2021

    • Research and Development grant by the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) for the project: “Validity and measurement properties in technology-enhanced test items: a balancing act” (with Saskia Wools, Remco Feskens, and Paul Drijvers) € 100,000

    2015

    • IOPS Graduate School Program grant (funded by NWO). Ph. D. project: “Developing Process Measurement Models with Broad Applicability”, by Joost Kruis
    • Personal grant from the Dutch Organization for Scientific Research (NWO), VENI scheme. Project title: “Within-subjects Approaches to the Analysis of Responses and Response Times to Psychometric Tests” € 250,000

    2007

    • Personal grant from the Dutch Organization for Scientific Research (NWO), TopTalent scheme. Project title: “Statistical modeling of (cognitive) ability differentiation” € 180,000

    Current cooperations

    2023 – present

    Member of advisory board that advices Cito (the Dutch organization for educational testing) on the quality of tests (to be) used in the Dutch primary education system.

    2019 - present

    Member of the board of The Interuniversity Graduate School of Psychometrics and Sociometrics (IOPS; an institute for the advanced dissertation training in psychometrics and sociometrics; with an emphasis on coordination of high-quality research in this area.)

    2019 - present

    Reviewer for the “Cotan”, the Dutch Committee on Tests and Testing which reviews the quality of psychological tests that are available for use in the Netherlands and raises standards for the use of psychological tests.

  • Teaching
    • Psychological Testing (second year undergraduate level)
    • Latent Variable Modeling (third year undergraduate level)
    • Structural Equation Modeling (graduate level)

    PhD Supervision

    • “Towards Psychometrically Interpretable Neural Networks:
      Bridging the Gap between Latent Variable Models from Psychometrics and Neural Networks from Deep Learning”. PhD student: Karel Veldkamp.
  • Publications

    2025

    • Veldkamp, K., Grasman, R., & Molenaar, D. (2025). Handling missing data in variational autoencoder based item response theory. British Journal of Mathematical & Statistical Psychology, 78(1), 378-397. https://doi.org/10.1111/bmsp.12363

    2024

    • Hoogeveen, S., Borsboom, D., Kucharský, Š., Marsman, M., Molenaar, D., de Ron, J., Sekulovski, N., Visser, I., van Elk, M., & Wagenmakers, E.-J. (2024). Prevalence, patterns and predictors of paranormal beliefs in The Netherlands: a several-analysts approach. Royal Society Open Science, 11(9), Article 240049. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.240049 [details]
    • Kolbe, L., Molenaar, D., Jak, S., & Jorgensen, T. D. (2024). Assessing measurement invariance with moderated nonlinear factor analysis using the R package OpenMx. Psychological Methods, 29(2), 388–406. https://doi.org/10.1037/met0000501 [details]
    • Su, S., Cousijn, J., Molenaar, D., Freichel, R., Larsen, H., & Wiers, R. W. (2024). From everyday life to measurable problematic smartphone use: The development and validation of the Smartphone Use Problems Identification Questionnaire (SUPIQ). Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 13(2), 506-524. https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.2024.00010 [details]
    • Veldkamp, K., Grasman, R., & Molenaar, D. (2024). Recommendation with item response theory. Behaviormetrika. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41237-024-00244-3

    2023

    2022

    • Becker, B., van Rijn, P., Molenaar, D., & Debeer, D. (2022). Item order and speededness: implications for test fairness in higher educational high-stakes testing. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 47(7), 1030-1042. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2021.1991273 [details]
    • Breit, M., Brunner, M., Molenaar, D., & Preckel, F. (2022). Differentiation Hypotheses of Intelligence: A Systematic Review of the Empirical Evidence and an Agenda for Future Research. Psychological Bulletin, 148(7-8), 518–554. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000379 [details]
    • Francken, J. C., Beerendonk, L., Molenaar, D., Fahrenfort, J. J., Kiverstein, J. D., Seth, A. K., & van Gaal, S. (2022). An academic survey on theoretical foundations, common assumptions and the current state of consciousness science. Neuroscience of Consciousness, 2022, Article niac011. https://doi.org/10.1093/nc/niac011 [details]
    • Klein Haneveld, E., Molenaar, D., de Vogel, V., Smid, W., & Kamphuis, J. H. (2022). Do We Hold Males and Females to the Same Standard? A Measurement Invariance Study on the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised. Journal of Personality Assessment, 104(3), 368-379. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2021.1947308 [details]
    • Molenaar, D., Cúri, M., & Bazán, J. L. (2022). Zero and One Inflated Item Response Theory Models for Bounded Continuous Data. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 47(6), 693-735. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.3102/10769986221108455 [details]
    • Pronk, T., Molenaar, D., Wiers, R. W., & Murre, J. (2022). Methods to split cognitive task data for estimating split-half reliability: A comprehensive review and systematic assessment. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 29(1), 44-54. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-021-01948-3 [details]
    • Wiberg, M., Molenaar, D., González, J., Kim, J-S., & Hwang, H. (Eds.) (2022). Quantitative Psychology: The 86th Annual Meeting of the Psychometric Society, Virtual, 2021. (Springer Proceedings in Mathematics & Statistics; Vol. 393). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04572-1 [details]

    2021

    2020

    2019

    2018

    2017

    2016

    • Molenaar, D. (2016). Intelligence tests. In J. Stone, R. M. Dennis, P. S. Rizova, A. D. Smith, & X. Hou (Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell encyclopedia of race, ethnicity and nationalism (Vol. 3). (Wiley Blackwell encyclopedias in social sciences). Wiley Blackwell. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118663202.wberen544 [details]
    • Molenaar, D. (2016). On the Distortion of Model Fit in Comparing the Bifactor Model and the Higher-Order Factor Model. Intelligence, 57, 60-63. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2016.03.007 [details]
    • Molenaar, D., Bolsinova, M., Rozsa, S., & De Boeck, P. (2016). Response Mixture Modeling of Intraindividual Differences in Responses and Response Times to the Hungarian WISC-IV Block Design Test. Journal of Intelligence, 4(3), Article 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/jintelligence4030010 [details]
    • Molenaar, D., Middeldorp, C. M., Willemsen, G., Ligthart, L., Nivard, M. G., & Boomsma, D. I. (2016). Evidence for Gender-Dependent Genotype by Environment Interaction in Adult Depression. Behavior genetics, 46(1), 59-71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-015-9752-4 [details]
    • Molenaar, D., Oberski, D., Vermunt, J., & de Boeck, P. (2016). Hidden Markov Item Response Theory Models for Responses and Response Times. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 51(5), 606-626. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2016.1192983 [details]
    • Murray, A. L., Booth, T., & Molenaar, D. (2016). Personality differentiation by cognitive ability: An application of the moderated factor model. Personality and Individual Differences, 100, 73-78. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.03.094 [details]
    • Murray, A. L., Booth, T., & Molenaar, D. (2016). When middle really means 'top' or 'bottom': An analysis the 16PF5 using Bock’s nominal response model. Journal of Personality Assessment, 98(3), 319-331. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2015.1095197 [details]
    • Murray, A. L., Molenaar, D., Johnson, W., & Krueger, R. F. (2016). Dependence of Gene-by-Environment Interactions (GxE) on Scaling: Comparing the Use of Sum Scores, Transformed Sum Scores and IRT Scores for the Phenotype in Tests of GxE. Behavior genetics, 46(4), 552-572. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-016-9783-5 [details]
    • Tuerlinckx, F., Molenaar, D., & van der Maas, H. L. J. (2016). Diffusion-based response-time models. In W. J. van der Linden (Ed.), Handbook of Item Response Theory. - Volume 1: Models (pp. 283-300). (Statistics in the Social and Behavioral Sciences). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315374512 [details]

    2015

    2014

    • Molenaar, D., & Dolan, C. V. (2014). Testing systematic genotype by environment interactions using item level data. Behavior genetics, 44(3), 212-231. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-014-9647-9 [details]
    • Topper, M., Molenaar, D., Emmelkamp, P., & Ehring, T. (2014). Are rumination and worry two sides of the same coin? A structural equation modelling approach. Journal of Experimental Psychopathology, 5(3), 363-381. https://doi.org/10.5127/jep.038813 [details]

    2013

    • Molenaar, D., & Borsboom, D. (2013). The formalization of fairness: issues in testing for measurement invariance using subtest scores. Educational Research and Evaluation, 19(2-3), 223-244. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803611.2013.767628 [details]
    • Molenaar, D., van der Sluis, S., Boomsma, D. I., Haworth, C. M. A., Hewitt, J. K., Martin, N. G., Plomin, R., Wright, M. J., & Dolan, C. V. (2013). Genotype by environment interactions in cognitive ability: a survey of 14 studies from four countries covering four age groups. Behavior genetics, 43(3), 208-219. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-012-9581-7 [details]

    2012

    2011

    • Molenaar, D., Dolan, C. V., & van der Maas, H. L. J. (2011). Modeling ability differentiation in the second-order factor model. Structural Equation Modeling, 18(4), 578-594. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2011.607095 [details]
    • Wicherts, J. M., Bakker, M., & Molenaar, D. (2011). Willingness to share research data is related to the strength of the evidence and the quality of reporting of statistical results. PLoS ONE, 6(11), Article e26828. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0026828 [details]
    • van der Maas, H. L. J., Molenaar, D., Maris, G., Kievit, R. A., & Borsboom, D. (2011). Cognitive psychology meets psychometric theory: on the relation between process models for decision making and latent variable models for individual differences. Psychological Review, 118(2), 339-356. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022749 [details]

    2010

    2009

    2018

    • Molenaar, D., & Dolan, C. V. (2018). Nonnormality in Latent Trait Modeling. In P. Irwing, T. Booth, & D. J. Hughes (Eds.), The Wiley Handbook of Psychometric Testing: A Multidisciplinary Reference on Survey, Scale and Test Development (Vol. 1, pp. 347-373). Wiley Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118489772.ch13 [details]
    • Wiberg, M., Culpepper, S., Janssen, R., González, J., & Molenaar, D. (Eds.) (2018). Quantitative Psychology: The 82nd Annual Meeting of the Psychometric Society, Zurich, Switzerland, 2017. (Springer Proceedings in Mathematics & Statistics; Vol. 233). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77249-3 [details]

    2020

    Prize / grant

    • Molenaar, D. (2022). Validity and measurement properties in technology-enhanced test items: a balancing act.
    • Molenaar, D. (2019). Early career award.
    • Molenaar, D. (2015). VENI grant: Psychologische meetprocedures voor responsen en responsetijden..
    • Molenaar, D. (2013). Dissertation Award.
    • Molenaar, D. (2007). John B. Caroll price for best research methodology.
    • Molenaar, D. (2007). NWO Talent Grant: Statistical Modeling of Cognitive Ability Differentiation.
    • Wicherts, J. M., Borsboom, D. & Molenaar, D. (2007). IOPS best paper award.

    Membership / relevant position

    • Molenaar, D. (2010). Organisation of the symposium Population Heterogeneity in SEM and IRT for the 75th annual meeting of the Psychometrics Society, Athens, USA, July, Psychometrics Society, Athens, USA.

    Journal editor

    • Molenaar, D. (member of editorial board) (2024-2028). Behavior Research Methods (Journal).
    • Molenaar, D. (member of editorial board) (2021-2030). Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics (Journal).
    • Molenaar, D. (member of editorial board) (2021-2030). Psychometrika (Journal).
    • Molenaar, D. (member of editorial board) (2020-2030). Psych (Journal).
    • Molenaar, D. (reviewer) (2019-2030). COTAN (Commissie Testaangelegenheden Nederland) (Publisher).
    • Molenaar, D. (reviewer) (2016-2019). Frontiers in Psychology (Journal).
    • Molenaar, D. (member of editorial board) (2015-2030). Intelligence (Journal).
    • Molenaar, D. (editor) (2015). Intelligence (Journal).

    Talk / presentation

    • Molenaar, D. (speaker) (25-7-2017). Workshop: Psychometric Modeling of Responses and Response Time Data, Deutschen Institut für Internationale Pädagogische Forschung (DIPF).
    • Molenaar, D. (invited speaker) (26-1-2016). Analysis of Behavioral and Emotional Problems in Children Highlights the Role of Genotype x Environment Interaction., VU University.
    • Molenaar, D. (invited speaker), Oberski, D. (invited speaker), Vermunt, J. (invited speaker) & de Boeck, P. (invited speaker) (6-10-2015). A Latent Markov IRT Modeling Approach to the Analysis of Responses and Response Times., The 6th RCEC workshop on IRT., Enschede.
    • Molenaar, D. (invited speaker), Oberski, D. (invited speaker), Vermunt, J. (invited speaker) & de Boeck, P. (invited speaker) (14-7-2015). Response mixture modeling of responses and response times., The 80th annual meeting of the Psychometrics Society., Beijing.
    • Molenaar, D. (invited speaker) & Rhemtulla, M. (invited speaker) (13-3-2015). A procedure to test for gene-by-latent environment interactions with multiple indicators., International Convention of Psychological Science., Amsterdam.
    • Molenaar, D. (invited speaker) (17-11-2014). Modeling within-subjects differences in responses and response times.
    • Molenaar, D. (invited speaker) (27-1-2014). The Heteroscedastic Latent Trait Model: Motivation, Development, and Applications., The Ohio State University.
    • Molenaar, D. (invited speaker) (13-1-2014). The Heteroscedastic Latent Trait Model: Motivation, Development, and Applications., University of Notre Dame.
    • Molenaar, D. (keynote speaker) (25-7-2013). Testing distributional assumptions in psychometric measurement model with substantive applications in psychology, International Meeting of the Psychometric Society, Arnhem.
    • Molenaar, D. (keynote speaker) (18-12-2012). Bring more Psychology into Psychometrics: Psychometric process models for the measurement of psychological attributes., Meeting of the Interuniversity Graduate School of Psychometrics and Sociometrics, Enschede.

    Others

    • Molenaar, D. (participant) (3-2017 - 4-2017). Workshop: A basic introductio to Mplus (organising a conference, workshop, ...).
    • Molenaar, D. (organiser) (2016). The VII European Congress of Methodology, Palma de Mallorca. Organization of the symposium Methodological advances in the
      psychometric analysis of responses and response times.
      (organising a conference, workshop, ...).
    • Molenaar, D. (organiser) (14-7-2015). The 80th annual meeting of the Psychometrics Society, Beijing. Symposium Modeling responses and response times to psychological tests (organising a conference, workshop, ...).
    • Molenaar, D. (organiser) (2013). the 78th annual meeting of the Psychometrics Society, Arnhem, The Netherlands, July.. Organization of the symposium Psychometric modeling of responses and response times (organising a conference, workshop, ...).
    • Molenaar, D. (organiser) (2011). the 76th annual meeting of the Psychometrics Society, Hong Kong, China. Organization of the symposium Heterogeneity in Latent Variable Models (organising a conference, workshop, ...).

    2023

    • Klinkenberg, S. (2023). A psychometric perspective on personalized assessment in education. [Thesis, fully internal, Universiteit van Amsterdam]. [details]

    2012

    2018

    2024

    2018

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